Degradation of the vegetation in Northern Syria: past and present
Introduction
It is well known that much of the Near Eastern vegetation is heavily degraded and this degradation is ongoing. The principal culprits are over-grazing by domestic herds, fuel-gathering, extensive ploughing and intentional burning. The increase in Syria’s population from 6,380,609 in 1970 to 23,594,623 in 2023 has intensified human impact. The sheep population in the Syrian steppe increased more than seven times between 1950 and 2007, partly in order to satisfy high demand for mutton in the Gulf States, turning the rich steppe vegetation into desert (Louhaichi & Tastad 2010). Several studies using satellite imagery have shown that over the past twenty years there has been a general degradation or browning of the landscape in Syria (Serra 2015). Finally, since the civil war began in 2011, shortages of fuel have led to an increased felling of shrubs and trees, even to the extent that protected forests in Syria have been exploited for the export of firewood to Lebanon (Daiyoub et al., 2023, Chen et al., 2022, paxforpeace).
In semi-arid areas of Southwest Asia, including Syria, degraded vegetation cannot regenerate naturally due to constant pressures from over-grazing, which every spring destroys seedlings, leading to desertification and soil erosion. Thus, vegetation cover has been drastically reduced. A decrease in vegetation and an increased exposure of bare soil are known to diminish precipitation in a negative feedback system (Bonan, 2008).
The role of governments
In order to reverse desertification, organizations such as the European Commission and the United Nations provided considerable funds between 1990 and 2011 to help with the creation of plantations and protected areas in the badia (“barren” or “steppe”) lands in Syria. These included reserves in the Jebel Abdul Aziz (Chatelard 2008), Jebel Bal’as, the Abū Rujmayn, the Jebel Bishri (Fig. 1), and the Talila Reserve east of Palmyra. Clearly, governments are aware of the problem of desertification and have made efforts to halt it. However, since 2011 the government agencies in Syria have had difficulty implementing protection policies. Recently (2024), the Syrian government has amended existing laws to augment the power of the Forestry Police in order to increase protection.
Archaeobotanical evidence for past vegetation
Fig. 1 presents the names (in blue) and approximate location (black dots) of late Pleistocene/early Holocene sites. These sites provided evidence from charred plant remains indicating that tree species such as Pistacia atlantica (Atlantic terebinth), Amygdalus sp (wild almond), Prunus spp (prunus species), Crataegus (hawthorn type), Pyrus (wild pear) and occasionally Quercus (deciduous oak) were more widespread during these periods than today (Tanno et al. 2013; Willcox 2002; Pessin 2004. This confirms Hillman’s proposition for the distribution of the vegetation in northern Syria for the early Holocene (Moore et al. 2000 Fig. 3,18d).

Information on past vegetation for later periods is irregular and discontinuous. Certain Bronze Age sites in central Syria have a similar assemblage to those mentioned above. For example, at sites in the arid zone such as Emar and Bderi, located quite far south, P. atlantica and oak charcoal were present (Deckers & Pessin 2010). Given that the early Holocene was more humid than today, it would appear that increasing aridity and human impact led to progressive degradation throughout the Holocene. Today the above-mentioned taxa are restricted to remote upland areas as forest remnants.
The present-day status of forest remnants and plantation projects: comparing photos on the ground and satellite images
We will examine the present-day forest remnants dominated by P. atlantica by comparing photos taken before 2009 to satellite images taken between 2008 and 2022. P. atlantica trees which have a crown width of 5 to 7 meters can be seen on the satellite images as black dots.
The Jebel Abdul Aziz, situated in northeast Syria is an upland area ranging between 750 and 850 masl. This area has a well-preserved scattering of P. atlantica trees, (Figs. 2 & 3) particularly on the north slopes. The trees survived the recent period of conflict. Other taxa such as Amygdalus sp and Prunus sp are also present.



Fig. 3: Satellite images dating to 2004 and 2021 of the same area as the above photo showing that the P. atlantica trees survived this period. They can be seen as black dots.
The Jebel Bishri situated south of the Euphrates, was defined in 1994 as an important centre of biodiversity; the vegetation included trees and bushes of Pistacia, Rhamnus, Prunus and Amygdalus. However, when I visited in 1993, these taxa appeared to be at the point of extinction. Between 1994 and 2006, the Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands, Syria (ACSAD) developed a project to prevent desertification in the Jebel Bishri which included planting P. atlantica. However, information concerning this remote area is difficult to obtain and satellite images provide no evidence of mature P. atlantica trees.
The Jebel Bal’as, situated in the most westerly part of the region (Fig. 1), was home to a dispersed population of mature P. atlantica, as seen in the photos in Fig. 4, taken in 2008. These isolated specimens occur in an overgrazed and degraded region. A recent report claims that in the Bal’as natural reserve, the remaining examples of these trees have been destroyed. Indeed satellite images appear to confirm this (Fig. 5).


Fig. 4: The two photos of P. atlantica on the Jebel Bal’as taken in 2008 (that on the left by F. Abbès). The trees in this area were generally mature, isolated and growing on heavily grazed and eroded land.


Fig. 5: Satellite images of an area of the Jebel Bal’as. The image on the left dates to 2011. P. atlantica trees can be seen as black dots. The image on the right of the same area dated to 2014 shows that the trees have disappeared. For scale, the trees have a crown of approx. 4 to 5 meters (Lat 34°58’17.93″N, Long 37°41’5.32″E ).
Abū Rujmayn, situated west of Palmyra, is a protected area of 60,000 hectares which before 2011 had a considerable population of P. atlantica. In contrast to the Jebel Bal’as, most of the trees in the area defined by Fig. 6 have survived.


Fig. 6: Satellite images of an area of Abū Rujmayn taken in 2010 and 2022 show that a number of P. atlantica trees have not survived (Lat 34°52’43.76″N Long 38°25’8.73″E).
Tree-planting projects were carried out by the Syrian government between 1990 and 2010. Here, we examine one example on the edge of the lake formed by the Tishrine dam in the Euphrates Valley near the early Neolithic site of Jerf el Ahmar, which was flooded by the lake in the late 1990s (see Figs. 7 & 8). This example is representative of similar plantations carried out along the shores of the lake. The plantations consisted of P. atlantica, Pinus sp and Cupressus (Figs. 7 & 8). In most areas, these have survived the last twenty years with the exception of P. atlantica, which is present in the 2008 image but absent in the 2024 image (Fig. 7).


Fig. 7: Satellite images of the area near the Neolithic site of Jerf el Ahmar in the Euphrates Valley, now under water in the lower part of the images, the excavation housing situated at the upper right. The image at left shows the plantations in 2008. On the right, the same area dated to 2024 shows that the survival rate of Pinus sp was good. However the P. atlantica plantation does not appear to have survived. The area marked by PA in the image on the right is barren in 2024 whereas in the 2008 image on the left in the same area the plantation is visible. It can also be seen in Fig. 8, in the left photo taken on the ground in 2005.


Fig. 8: Photos taken in 2005 of the plantations near the site of Jerf el Ahmar. The left hand photo shows four young P. atlantica trees in the foreground (also visible in the 2008 satellite image in Fig. 7). The right hand photo shows the pine plantations in the mid-distance in 2005 which can also be seen in the 2024 satellite image.
Conclusion
Archaeobotanical evidence demonstrates that during the early Holocene the vegetation in northern Syria consisted of a steppe forest dominated by P. atlantica. A combination of climate change and human impact resulted in the disappearance of this vegetation in most areas; however, it survived in remote upland areas where sometimes isolated mature specimens of P. atlantica occur today. Desertification in Syria has accelerated over the past decades due to an increase in domestic herds and human population. Evidence from satellite images has shown that desertification and the felling of trees have increased due to exploitation for fuel in lowland areas since the period of conflict that began in 2011. In protected highland areas, forest remnants with P. atlantica trees (visible on satellite images) appear to have survived in remote areas of the Jebel Adul Aziz and the Abū Rujmayn, but less so in the Jebel Bal’as. However, examination on the ground is necessary in order to confirm these conclusions and accurately assess the situation. Several reports indicate that some government plantations have been felled but those on shores of the lake formed by the Tishrine dam in the Euphrates Valley have survived, although in a reduced state.
All photos were taken by G. Willcox except the left hand photo in Fig. 4 which was taken by F. Abbès. Satellite images were downloaded from Google Earth.
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L’auteur / The author
George Willcox is an associated researcher of Archéorient (UMR 5133). George Willcox est chercheur associé au laboratoire Archéorient (UMR 5133).
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George Willcox (27 novembre 2024). Degradation of the vegetation in Northern Syria: past and present. Bioarchéologies. Consulté le 26 avril 2025 à l’adresse https://doi.org/10.58079/12s3n